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A PHYSICIAN'S
VIEW OF THE CRUCIFIXION OF JESUS CHRIST
- Dr. C. Truman
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About a decade ago, reading Jim Bishop's
The Day Christ Died, I realized that I had for years
taken the Crucifixion more or less for granted - that I
had grown callous to its horror by a too easy
familiarity with the grim details and a too distant
friendship with our Lord. It finally occurred to me
that, though a physician, I didn't even know the actual
immediate cause of death. The Gospel writers don't help
us much on this point, because crucifixion and scourging
were so common during their lifetime that they
apparently considered a detailed description
unnecessary.
So we have only the concise words of the Evangelists:
"Pilate, having scourged Jesus, delivered Him to them to
be crucified - and they crucified Him." I have no
competence to discuss the infinite psychic and spiritual
suffering of the Incarnate God atoning for the sins of
fallen man. But it seemed to me that as a physician I
might pursue the physiological and anatomical aspects of
our Lord's passion in some detail.
What did the body of Jesus of Nazareth actually endure
during those hours of torture? This led me first to a
study of the practice of crucifixion itself; that is,
torture and execution by fixation to a cross. I am
indebted to many who have studied this subject in the
past, and especially to a contemporary colleague, Dr.
Pierre Barbet, a French surgeon who has done exhaustive
historical and experimental research and has written
extensively on the subject.
Apparently, the first known practice of crucifixion was
by the Persians. Alexander and his generals brought it
back to the Mediterranean world - to Egypt and to
Carthage. The Romans apparently learned the practice
from the Carthaginians and (as with almost everything
the Romans did) rapidly developed a very high degree of
efficiency and skill at it.
A number of Roman authors (Livy, Cicer, Tacitus) comment
on crucifixion, and several innovations, modifications,
and variations are described in the ancient literature.
For instance, the upright portion of the cross (or
stipes) could have the cross-arm (or patibulum) attached
two or three feet below its top in what we commonly
think of as the Latin cross. The most common form used
in our Lord's day, however, was the Tau cross, shaped
like our
In this cross, the patibulum was placed in a notch at
the top of the stipes. There is archeological evidence
that it was on this type of cross that Jesus was
crucified. Without any historical or biblical proof,
Medieval and Renaissance painters have given us our
picture of Christ carrying the entire cross. But the
upright post, or stipes, was generally fixed permanently
in the ground at the site of execution and the condemned
man was forced to carry the patibulum, weighing about
110 pounds, from the prison to the place of execution.
Many of the painters and most of the sculptors of
crucifixion, also show the nails through the palms.
Historical Roman accounts and expe rimental work have
established that the nails were driven between the small
bones of the wrists (radial and ulna) and not through
the palms. Nails driven through the palms will strip out
between the fingers when made to support the weight of
the human body. The misconception may have come about
through a misunderstanding of Jesus' words to Thomas,
“Observe my hands." Anatomists, both modern and ancient,
have always considered the wrist as part of the hand. A
titulus, or small sign, stating the victim's crime was
usually placed on a staff, carried at the front of the
procession from the prison, and later nailed to the
cross so that it extended above the head. This sign with
its staff nailed to the top of the cross would have
given it somewhat the characteristic form of the Latin
cross.
But, of course, the physical passion of the Christ began
in Gethsemane. Of the many aspects of this initial
suffering, the one of greatest physiological interest is
the bloody sweat. It is interesting that St. Luke, the
physician, is the only one to mention this. He says,
"And being in agony, He prayed the longer. And His sweat
became as drops of blood, trickling down upon the
ground." Every ruse (trick) imaginable has been used by
modern scholars to explain away this description,
apparently under the mistaken impression that this just
doesn't happen.
A great deal of effort could have been saved had the
doubters consulted the medical literature. Though very
rare, the phenomenon of Hematidrosis, or bloody sweat,
is well documented. Under great emotional stress of the
kind our Lord suffered, tiny capillaries in the sweat
glands can break, thus mixing blood with sweat. This
process might well have produced marked weakness and
possible shock.
After the arrest in the middle of the night, Jesus was
next brought before the Sanhedrin and Caiphus, the High
Priest; it is here that the first physical trauma was
inflicted. A soldier struck Jesus across the face for
remaining silent when questioned by Caiphus. The palace
guards then blind-folded Him and mockingly taunted Him
to identify them as they each passed by, spat upon Him,
and struck Him in the face.
In the early morning, battered and bruised, dehydrated,
and exhausted from a sleepless night, Jesus is taken
across the Praetorium of the Fortress Antonia, the seat
of government of the Procurator of Judea, Pontius
Pilate. You are, of course, familiar with Pilate's
action in attempting to pass responsibility to Herod
Antipas, the Tetrarch of Judea. Jesus apparently
suffered no physical mistreatment at the hands of Herod
and was returned to Pilate.
It was then, in response to the cries of the mob, that
Pilate ordered Bar-Abbas released and condemned Jesus to
scourging and crucifixion. There is much disagreement
among authorities about the unusual scourging as a
prelude to crucifixion. Most Roman writers from this
period do not associate the two. Many scholars believe
that Pilate originally ordered Jesus scourged as his
full punishment and that the death sentence by
crucifixion came only in response to the taunt by the
mob that the Procurator was not properly defending
Caesar against this pretender who allegedly claimed to
be the King of the Jews.
Preparations for the scourging were carried out when the
Prisoner was stripped of His clothing and His hands tied
to a post above His head. It is doubtful the Romans
would have made any attempt to follow the Jewish law in
this matter, but the Jews had an ancient law prohibiting
more than forty lashes. The Roman legionnaire steps
forward with the flagrum (or flagellum) in his hand.
This is a short whip consisting of several heavy,
leather thongs with two small balls of lead attached
near the ends of each. The heavy whip is brought down
with full force again and again across Jesus' shoulders,
back, and legs.
At first the thongs cut through the skin only. Then, as
the blows continue, they cut deeper into the
subcutaneous tissues, producing first an oozing of blood
from the capillaries and veins of the skin, and finally
spurting arterial bleeding from vessels in the
underlying muscles. The small balls of lead first
produce large, deep bruises which are broken open by
subsequent blows. Finally the skin of the back is
hanging in long ribbons and the entire area is an
unrecognizable mass of torn, bleeding tissue. When it is
determined by the centurion in charge that the prisoner
is near death, the beating is finally stopped. The
half-fainting Jesus is then untied and allowed to slump
to the stone pavement, wet with His own blood.
The Roman soldiers see a great joke in this provincial
Jew claiming to be king. They throw a robe across His
shoulders and place a stick in His hand for a scepter.
They still need a crown to make their travesty complete.
Flexible branches covered with long thorns (commonly
used in bundles for firewood) are plaited into the shape
of a crown and this is pressed into His scalp. Again
there is copious bleeding, the scalp being one of the
most vascular areas of the body.
After mocking Him and striking Him across the face, the
soldiers take the stick from His hand and strike Him
across the head, driving the thorns deeper into His
scalp. Finally, they tire of their sadistic sport and
the robe is torn from His back. Already having adhered
to the clots of blood and serum in the wounds, its
removal causes excruciating pain just as in the careless
removal of a surgical bandage, and almost as though He
were again being whipped the wounds once more begin to
bleed.
In deference to Jewish custom, the Romans return His
garments. The heavy patibulum of the cross is tied
across His shoulders, and the procession of the
condemned Christ, two thieves, and the execution detail
of Roman soldiers headed by a centurion begins its slow
journey along the Via Dolorosa. In spite of His efforts
to walk erect, the weight of the heavy wooden beam,
together with the shock produced by copious blood loss,
is too much. He stumbles and falls. The rough wood of
the beam gouges into the lacerated skin and muscles of
the shoulders. He tries to rise, but human muscles have
been pushed beyond their endurance.
The centurion, anxious to get on with the crucifixion,
selects a stalwart North African onlooker, Simon of
Cyrene, to carry the cross. Jesus follows, still
bleeding and sweating the cold, clammy sweat of shock,
until the 650 yard journey from the fortress Antonia to
Golgotha is finally completed. Jesus is offered wine
mixed with myrrh, a mild analgesic mixture. He refuses
to drink. Simon is ordered to place the patibulum on the
ground and Jesus quickly thrown backward with His
shoulders against the wood. The legionnaire feels for
the depression at the front of the wrist. He drives a
heavy, square, wrought-iron nail through the wrist and
deep into the wood. Quickly, he moves to the other side
and repeats the action, being careful not to pull the
arms to tightly, but to allow some flexion and movement.
The patibulum is then lifted in place at the top of the
stipes and the titulus reading, "Jesus of Nazareth, King
of the Jews," is nailed in place.
The left foot is now pressed backward against the right
foot, and with both feet extended, toes down, a nail is
driven through the arch of each, leaving the knees
moderately flexed. The Victim is now crucified. As He
slowly sags down with more weight on the nails in the
wrists, excruciating pain shoots along the fingers and
up the arms to explode in the brain - the nails in the
wrists are putting pressure on the median nerves.
As He pushes Himself upward to avoid this stretching
torment, He places His full weight on the nail through
His feet. Again there is the searing agony of the nail
tearing through the nerves between the metatarsal bones
of the feet. At this point, as the arms fatigue, great
waves of cramps sweep over the muscles, knotting them in
deep, relentless, throbbing pain. With these cramps
comes the inability to push Himself upward. Hanging by
his arms, the pectoral muscles are paralyzed and the
intercostal muscles are unable to act. Air can be drawn
into the lungs, but cannot be exhaled. Jesus fights to
raise Himself in order to get even one short breath.
Finally, carbon dioxide builds up in the lungs and in
the blood stream and the cramps partially subside.
Spasmodically, he is able to push Himself upward to
exhale and bring in the life-giving oxygen. It was
undoubtedly during these periods that He uttered the
seven short sentences recorded: The first, looking down
at the Roman soldiers throwing dice for His seamless
garment, "Father, forgive them for they know not what
they do."
The second, to the penitent thief, "Today thou shalt be
with me in Paradise." The third, looking down at the
terrified, grief stricken adolescent John the beloved
Apostle he said, "Behold thy mother." Then, looking to
His mother Mary, "Woman behold thy son." The fourth cry
is from the beginning of the 22nd Psalm, "My God, my
God, why has thou forsaken me?" Jesus experienced hours
of limitless pain, cycles of twisting, joint-rending
cramps, intermittent partial asphyxiation, searing pain
where tissue is torn from His lacerated back as He moves
up and down against the rough timber. Then another agony
begins -- a terrible crushing pain deep in the chest as
the pericardium slowly fills with serum and begins to
compress the heart.
One remembers again the 22nd Psalm, the 14th verse: "I
am poured out like water, and all my bones are out of
joint; my heart is like wax; it is melted in the midst
of my bowels." It is now almost over. The loss of tissue
fluids has reached a critical level; the compressed
heart is struggling to pump heavy, thick, sluggish blood
into the tissue; the tortured lungs are making a frantic
effort to gasp in small gulps of air. The markedly
dehydrated tissues send their flood of stimuli to the
brain. Jesus gasps His fifth cry, "I thirst." One
remembers another verse from the prophetic 22nd psalm:
"My strength is dried up like a potsherd; and my tongue
cleaveth to my jaws; and thou has brought me into the
dust of death." A sponge soaked in posca, the cheap,
sour wine which is the staple drink of the Roman
legionaries, is lifted to His lips. He apparently
doesn't take any of the liquid.
The body of Jesus is now in extremes, and He can feel
the chill of death creeping through His tissues. This
realization brings out His sixth words, possibly little
more than a tortured whisper, "It is finished." His
mission of atonement has completed. Finally He can allow
his body to die.
With one last surge of strength, he once again presses
His torn feet against the nail, straightens His legs,
takes a deeper breath, and utters His seventh and last
cry, "Father! Into thy hands I commit my spirit." The
rest you know. In order that the Sabbath not be
profaned, the Jews asked that the condemned men be
dispatched and removed from the crosses. The common
method of ending a crucifixion was by crurifracture, the
breaking of the bones of the legs. This prevented the
victim from pushing himself upward; thus the tension
could not be relieved from the muscles of the chest and
rapid suffocation occurred. The legs of the two thieves
were broken, but when the soldiers came to Jesus they
saw that this was unnecessary.
Apparently, to make doubly sure of death, the
legionnaire drove his lance through the fifth interspace
between the ribs, upward through the pericardium and
into the heart. The 34th verse of the 19th chapter of
the Gospel according to St. John reports: "And
immediately there came out blood and water." That is,
there was an escape of water fluid from the sac
surrounding the heart, giving postmortem evidence that
Our Lord died not the usual crucifixion death by
suffocation, but of heart failure (a broken heart) due
to shock and constriction of the heart by fluid in the
pericardium.
Thus we have had our glimpse - including the medical
evidence of that epitome of evil which man has exhibited
toward Man and toward God. It has been a terrible sight,
and more than enough to leave us despondent and
depressed. How grateful we can be that we have the great
sequel in the infinite mercy of God toward man at once
the miracle of the atonement (at one ment) and the
expectation of the triumphant Easter morning.
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This page
is updated on April 20, 2009 |
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PRAISE THE ALMIGHTY
10 YEARS CELEBRATION
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